INTERNATIONAL AUTHORITIES AND PRECEDENTS
1. Draft United Nations Declaration on
the Rights of Indigenous Peoples (UN 1994)
Article 13: "Indigenous peoples have the right to
manifest, practice, develop and teach their spiritual and religious traditions,
customs and ceremonies; the right to maintain, protect, and have access in
privacy to their religious and cultural sites; the right to the use and control
of ceremonial objects; and the right to the repatriation of human remains.
States shall take effective measures, in
conjunction with the indigenous peoples concerned, to ensure that indigenous
sacred places, including burial sites, be preserved, respected and protected."
Article 12: "Indigenous peoples have the right to
practice and revitalize their cultural traditions and customs. This includes the
right to maintain, protect and develop the past, present and future
manifestations of their cultures, such as archaeological and historical sites,
artefacts, designs, ceremonies, technologies and visual and performing arts and
literature, as well as the right to the restitution of cultural, intellectual,
religious and spiritual property taken without their free and informed consent
or in violation of their laws, traditions and customs."
Article 25: "Indigenous peoples have the right to
maintain and strengthen their distinctive spiritual and material relationship
with the lands, territories, waters and coastal seas and other resources which
they have traditionally owned or otherwise occupied or used, and to uphold their
responsibilities to future generations in this regard."
2. C 169, Convention on Indigenous and
Tribal People (ILO Convention 1989)
Article 5: "…In applying the provisions of this
Convention:
(a) the social, cultural, religious and
spiritual values and practices of these peoples shall be recognized and
protected, and due account shall be taken of the nature of the problems which
face them both as groups and as individuals;
(b) the integrity of the values, practices
and institutions of these peoples shall be respected..."
3. American Convention on Human Rights
(OAS 1969)
Article 12(1): “Everyone shall have the right to
freedom of conscience and of religion. This right includes freedom to maintain
or to change one’s religion or beliefs, and freedom to profess or disseminate
one’s religion or beliefs, either individually or together with others, in
public or private.
Article 12(2): “No one shall be subject to
restrictions that might impair his freedom to maintain or to change his religion
or beliefs.”
Article 13(1): “Everyone has the right to freedom
of thought and expression.”
Article 16(1): “Everyone has the right to
associate freely for ideological, religious, political, economic, labor, social,
cultural, sports, or other purposes."
4. American Declaration on
the Rights and Duties of Man (OAS 1948)
Article III: “Every person has the right freely to
profess a religious faith, and to manifest and practice it both in public and
private.”
5. Convention on the Protection of the
Archeological, Historical, and Artistic Heritage of the American Nations
(Convention of San Salvador) (Santiago, Chile 1976)
Article 2(a): defining "cultural property" as "[m]onuments,
objects, fragments of ruined buildings, and archeological materials belonging to
American cultures existing prior to contact with European culture, as well as
remains of human beings, fauna, and flora related to such cultures.
Article 9: "Each State Party shall prevent by all
available means any unlawful excavation in its territory or any removal of
cultural property therefrom".
6. International Covenant on Civil and
Political Rights (UN 1966)
Article 18(1): “Everyone shall have the right to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom
to have or to adopt a religion or belief of his choice, and freedom, either
individually or in community with others and in public or private, to manifest
his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching. (2) No one
shall be subject to coercion which would impair his freedom to have or to adopt
a religion or belief of his choice.”
Article 18(3): “Freedom to manifest one’s religion
or beliefs may be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and
are necessary to protect public safety, order, health, or morals or the
fundamental rights and freedoms of others. (4) The States Parties to the present
Covenant undertake to have respect for the liberty of parents and, when
applicable, legal guardians to ensure the religious and moral education of their
children in conformity with their own convictions.”
7. International Convention on the
Elimination of all Forms of Racial Discrimination (UN 1965)
Article 5(d)(vii)(ix): “States Parties undertake
to prohibit and to eliminate racial discrimination in all its forms and to
guarantee the right of everyone freedom of thought, conscience and
religion...freedom of opinion and expression... [and] freedom of peaceful
assembly and association."
8. Convention on the Rights of the
Child (UN 1989)
Article 14(1): “State Parties shall respect the
right of the child to freedom of thought, conscience and religion.”
9. Convention Against Discrimination in
Education (UNESCO 1960)
Article 5 1(b): “no person or group of persons
should be compelled to receive religious instruction inconsistent with his or
their conviction;”
10. Universal Declaration of Human Rights
(UN 1948)
Article 18: “Everyone has the right to freedom of
thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief, and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief in teaching, practice,
worship and observance.”
11. Declaration on the Rights of Persons
Belonging to National or Ethnic Religious or Linguistic Minorities (UN 1990)
Article 1(1): "States shall protect the existence
and the national or ethnic, cultural, religious and linguistic identity of
minorities within their respective territories and shall encourage conditions
for the promotion of that identity.”
12. Declaration on the Elimination of All
Forms of Intolerance and of Discrimination Based on Religion or Belief (UN 1981)
Article 1(1): ”Everyone shall have the right to
freedom of thought, conscience and religion. This right shall include freedom
to have a religion or whatever belief of his choice, and freedom, either
individually or in community with others and in pubic or in private, to manifest
his religion or belief in worship, observance, practice and teaching.”
Article 1(2): “No one shall be subject to coercion
which would impair his freedom to have a religion or belief of his choice.”
Article 4(1): “All States shall take effective
measures to prevent and eliminate discrimination on the grounds of religion or
belief.”
13. Convention on the Means of Prohibiting
and Preventing the Illicit Import, Export and Transfer of Ownership of Cultural
Property (UNESCO 1970)
Article 13: "The States Parties to this Convention
also undertake, consistent with the laws of each State: (a) To prevent by all
appropriate means transfers of ownership of cultural property likely to promote
the illicit import or export of such property; (b) to ensure that their
competent services co-operate in facilitating the earliest possible restitution
of illicitly exported cultural property to its rightful owner".
14. African Charter on Human and Peoples’
Rights (Banjul Charter 1981)
Article 8: “Freedom of conscience, the profession
and free practice of religion shall be guaranteed. No one may, subject to law
and order, be submitted to measures restricting the exercise of these freedoms."
15. European Convention for the Protection
of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (ROME 1950)
Article 9(1): “Everyone has the right to freedom
of thought, conscience and religion; this right includes freedom to change his
religion or belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others and in
public or private, to manifest his religion or belief, in worship, teaching,
practice and observance.”
Article 9(2): “Freedom to manifest one’s religion
or belief shall be subject only to such limitations as are prescribed by law and
are necessary in a democratic society in the interest of public safety, for the
protection of public order, health or morals, or for the protection of the
rights and freedoms of others.”
16. World Bank Operational Manual,
"Description and Sample Outline of an Environmental Action Plan, Operational
Directive 4.02 , (July 1992)
Para. 4: "A Comprehensive EAP [Environmental
Assessment Plan] normally covers a broad range of topics similar to those listed
below. The weight accorded to each item covered depends on local circumstances.
(b) An analysis of major cross-sectoral issues
(e.g., demography, public health and safety, cultural and natural heritage) and
socioeconomic factors important to the environment and resource use. Basic
information required for the cross sectoral analysis includes the following:
(iii) Cultural and natural heritage: Data on
environmental or human induced risk to the preservation of specific major sites,
structures, and remains of archeological, historical, cultural, religious, or
aesthetic value; identification of natural resources of particular biological,
ecological, medical, or touristic value."
17. Alliance for Sustainable
Development documents signed by the Presidents of Costa Rica, El Salvador,
Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Panama and a Representative of the Prime
Minister of Belize, at the Central American Ecological Summit for Sustainable
Development in Managua, Nicaragua, (October 12, 1994)
"Annex II: Commitments of the Alliance: Cultural
Heritage - We hereby instruct the ministers of culture, or the pertinent
authorities in the countries, to submit within a period of six months, draft
agreements on the following topics to the respective ministries of foreign
affairs:
-Central American Agreement for Exhibitions of
Archaeological, Historical and Artistic Objects
-Central American Agreement for the Restitution
and Return of Illegally Removed Cultural Assets."
18. Informe de
la relatora Especial de la Subcomisión de Prevención de Discriminaciones y
Protección a las Minorías sobre la “Protección del patrimonio de los pueblos
indígenas" (UN 1986)
159. Los pueblos indígenas
han sido vulnerables a la pérdida de su patrimonio como entidades diferentes.
Como por lo general los gobiernos los consideran “atrasados”, han sido objeto
de políticas agresivas de asimilación cultural. Con frecuencia sus artes y
conocimientos no se consideraron como tesoros mundiales sino que simplemente se
destruyeron durante el proceso de colonización. A menudo se dio más valor a sus
cuerpos que a su cultura, que fue coleccionada por museos. El turismo, una
creciente demanda de arte “primitivo” por los consumidores y el desarrollo de la
biotechnología amenazan ahora la capacidad de los pueblos indígenas para
proteger lo que queda de su patrimonio.
II. DOMESTIC AUTHORITIES AND
PRECEDENTS
19. Canada
- Canadian Constitution Act,
1982
Part I: Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms
Section 2 Fundamental Freedoms
2. "Everyone has the following fundamental
freedoms:
(a) freedom of conscience and religion
(b) freedom of thought, belief, opinion and
expression, including freedom of the press and other means of communication.
(c) freedom of peaceful assembly; and
(d) freedom of association."
- Royal Commission on
Aboriginal Peoples, Vol. 4 Ch 7 s.1.4 to s. 2.1
“It is important that Aboriginal spirituality be
recognized and affirmed by both Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal institutions.”
“The Commission urges reconciliation to ensure
that Aboriginal people have the freedom to practice their traditional
spirituality.”
20. Colombia
Constitución Política de Colombia
Artículo 68. ...”En los
establecimientos del Estado ninguna persona podrá ser obligada a recibir
educación religiosa”…
21. Chile
Ley No.
19.253
Artículo 19: "Los indígenas
gozarán del derecho a ejercer comunitariamente actividades en los sitios
sagrados o ceremoniales, cementerios, canchas de guillatún, apachetas, campos
deportivos y otros espacios territoriales de uso cultural o recreativo, que sean
de propiedad fiscal”.
22. Ecuador
Constitución Política del
Estado Ecuatorio
Art 23: Sin perjuicio de los
derechos establecidos en esta Constitución y en los instrumentos internacionales
vigentes, el Estado reconocerá y garantizará a las personas los siguientes: (11)
La libertad de conciencia; la libertad de religión, expresada en forma
individual o colectiva, en público o en privado. Las personas practicarán
libremente el culto que profesen, con las únicas limitaciones que la ley
prescriba para proteger y respetar la diversidad, la pluralidad, la seguridad y
los derechos de los demás.
23. United States
- Executive Order to Protect
American Indian Sacred Sites (May 24, 1996)
Section 1: US executive branch agencies “shall to
the extent practicable, permitted by law, and not clearly inconsistent with
essential agency functions” “(1) accommodate access to and ceremonial use of
Indian sacred sites by Indian religious practitioners and (2) avoid adversely
affecting the physical integrity of such sacred sites. Where appropriate,
agencies shall maintain the confidentiality of sacred sites.”
Section 2(b): agencies with management
responsibilities over federal land will report on “procedures implemented or
proposed to facilitate consultation with appropriate Indian tribes and religious
leaders”.
- National Historic
Preservation Act of 1966 (NHPA), 16 U.S.C. 470 et seq.
Under this Act, the US government took a more
aggressive role in preserving its “historical and cultural foundations” by
“accelerat[ing] its historic preservation programs and activities” and
“assist[ing] State and local governments, Indian tribes and Native Hawaiian
organization” in their own preservation programs through increased consultation,
and exchanges of financial assistance. § 470. A National Register of Historic
Places was established, §470(a), whereby sites on this list can include
“[p]roperties of traditional religious and cultural importance to an Indian
tribe or Native Hawaiian organization” §470(d)(6). Consultations with Indian
tribes or Native Hawaiians are required where they may “attach[] religious and
cultural significance to properties...” §470(d)(6). Once on the list, the effect
on the site must be considered during any planning or execution of any “proposed
federal or federally assisted undertaking.” §470(f). Tribes must be consulted
during this process as well. 36 C.F.R. §800. Moreover, a "tribe may assume all
of any part of the functions of a State Historic Preservation Officer...with
respect to tribal lands..." §470(d)(2). Lastly, the Act provides that the
federal agency may keep the location of these sites confidential where there is
fear that disclosure could cause “(1) significant invasion of privacy; (2) risk
harm to the historic resource; or (3) impede the use of a traditional religious
site by practitioners.” §470(w)(3).
- Archeological Resource
Protection Act, 16 U.S.C. (470aa-470mm)
The Act’s purpose is to “[s]ecure, for the present
and future benefit of the American people, the protection of archaeological
resources and sites which are on public lands and Indian lands” and requires a
permit before any person can excavate or removal any archeological resource.” §
470cc(a). Where the permit issued “may result in harm to or destruction of any
religious or cultural site...the Federal land manger shall notify any Indian
tribe which may consider the site as having religious or cultural importance.”
§470cc(c). “In the case of any permits for the excavation or removal of any
archaeological resource located on Indian lands, the permit may be granted [by
the Federal land manager] only after obtaining the consent of the Indian or
Indian tribe owning or having jurisdiction over such lands. The permit shall
include such terms and conditions as may be requested by such Indian or Indian
tribe.Ӥ 470cc(g)(2).
- Native American Graves Protection and
Repatriation Act, 25 USC 3001 et seq.
Provides for the repatriation to Indian tribes of
Native American human remains, funerary objects, sacred objects, and cultural
patrimony that are excavated or discovered on federal or tribal lands or that
are currently in the control of federal agencies or museums receiving federal
funding.
24. Guatemala
- Agreement on Identity and Rights of Indigenous
Peoples
Article III. C. Spirituality
1. Recognition is accorded to the
importance and special nature of Mayan spirituality as an essential component in
the Mayan vision of the world and in the transmittal of its values, as well as
those of the other indigenous peoples.
2. The Government undertakes to secure
respect for the exercise of this spirituality in all its manifestations, and
particularly for the right to practice it, both in public and in private by
means of education, worship and observance. Recognition is also given to the
importance of the respect due to indigenous spiritual guides and to sacred
ceremonies and holy places.
3. The Government shall promote, in the
Guatemalan Congress, the reform of article 66 of the Constitution to stipulate
that the State recognizes, respects and protects the various forms of
spirituality practised by the Maya, Garifuna and Xinca peoples.
D. Temples, ceremonial centres and holy
places
1. Recognition is accorded to the
historical value and current importance of temples and ceremonial centres as
part of the cultural, historical and spiritual heritage of the Maya and other
indigenous peoples.
Temples and ceremonial centres situated in areas
protected by the State as archaeological sites.
2. According to the Guatemalan
Constitution, temples and ceremonial centres of archaeological value constitute
part of the national cultural heritage. As such, they are the property of the
State and must be protected. In that context, measures must be taken to ensure
that this principle is not violated in the case of temples and ceremonial
centres of archaeological value situated or found on private property.
3. The right of the Maya, Garifuna and
Xinca peoples to participate in the conservation and administration of such
places is recognized. To guarantee this right the Government undertakes to
promote, with the participation of indigenous peoples, legal measures to ensure
redefinition of State entities responsible for this function in order to make
this right effective.
4. Changes shall be made in the
regulations for the protection of ceremonial centres in archaeological areas to
ensure that such regulations permit the practice of spirituality and cannot be
made an impediment to the exercise of spiritual values. The Government shall
promote, in cooperation with indigenous spiritual organizations, regulations
governing access to ceremonial centres to guarantee the free practice of
indigenous spirituality in conditions of respect laid down by spiritual guides.
Holy places
5. It is recognized that there are other
holy places in which indigenous spirituality and, in particular, Mayan
spirituality, is traditionally practised and which need to be preserved. A
commission formed of representatives of the Government and indigenous
organizations and of indigenous spiritual guides shall be set up to identify
these places and establish rules for their preservation."
25. Mexico
Ley de derechos de los
pueblos y comunidades indígenas del Estado de Oaxaca
Artículo 27: "Los pueblos y
las comunidades indígenas tienen derecho a practicar sus propias ceremonias
religiosas, tanto en las áreas indígenas como en las que no tienen predominio
indígena, respetando la Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto Públiico”.
26. Nicaragua
Constitución de Nicaragua
Artículo 128: “El Estado
protege el patrimonio arqueológico, histórico, lingüístico, cultural y artístico
de la nación”.
Artículo 180: “Las
Comunidades de la Costa Atlántica tienen el derecho de vivir y desarrollarse
bajo las formas de organización social que corresponden a sus tradiciones
históricas y culturales. El Estado garantiza a esta comunidades el disfrute de
sus recursos naturales, la efectividad de sus formas de propiedad comunal y la
libre elección de sus autoridades y representantes. Asimismo garantiza la
preservación de sus culturas y lenguas, religiones y costumbres”.
Regimen Especial de la
Comarca Kuna Yala (Ley 2 de 1938 -modificada por la Ley 99 de 1998)
Artículo 13: "El Congreso
General de la Cultura Kuna es el organismo de expresión religioso de protección,
conservación y divulgación del patrimonio histórico cultural del pueblo Kuna..."
Artículo 37: "El Estado
reconoce, garantiza y respeta que la Religión Ibeorgum es de la Comarca Kuna
Yala”.
Artículo 38: "Los sitios y
objectos arqueológicos, documentos, monumentos históricos y cualquier otro bien
mueble e inmueble que sean testimonio del pasado pueblo Kuna, son del Patrimonio
de la Comarca y las cuales estarán bajo la custodia del Congreso. Para tales
efectos, el Congreso, a través de la Comisión del Centro de Investigación Kuna
buscará los mecanísmos adecuados para custodio y conservación, conjuntamente con
la Dirección Nacional del Patrimonio Histórico del Instituto Nacional de
Cultura”.
28. St. Kitts and Nevis
Constitution of St. Kitts and
Nevis (1983)
Article 11(1): "Except with his own consent, a
person shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience,
including freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or
belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in public
and in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance."
Constitution of the Republic
of Trinidad and Tobago (1980)
Article 4(h): "It is hereby recognized and
declared that in Trinidad and Tobago there have existed and shall continue to
exist without discrimination by reason of race, origin, colour, religion or sex,
the following fundamental human rights and freedoms, namely: ... freedom of
conscience and religious belief and observance"
30. Vincent and St. Grenadines
Constitution of St. Vincent and
St. Grenadines
Article 9(1): "Except with his own consent, a
person shall not be hindered in the enjoyment of his freedom of conscience,
including freedom of thought and of religion, freedom to change his religion or
belief and freedom, either alone or in community with others, and both in public
and in private, to manifest and propagate his religion or belief in worship,
teaching, practice and observance. "(4) A person shall not be compelled to take
any oath which is contrary to his religion or belief or to take any oath in a
manner that is contrary to his religion or belief. (5) Nothing contained in or
done under the authority of any law shall be held to be inconsistent with or in
contravention of this section to the extent that the law in question makes
provision which is reasonably required- b. for the purpose of protecting the
rights and freedoms of other persons including the right to observe and practice
any religion without the unsolicited intervention or members of any other
religion..."
31. Suriname
Constitución de Suriname
Article 18: "Everyone has the right of freedom of
religion and philosophy of life."
32. Venezuela
- Ley
Indígena
Artículo 6: "Para conservar
el patrimonio arqueológico nacional, quedan prohibidas búsqueda y extracción de
huacas en los cementerlos indígenas, con excepción de exploraciones científicas
autorizadas por instituciones oficiales. En todo caso éstas necesitarán la
autorización de la comunidad indígena y de la CONAI”.
- Constitución Política de la
República de Venezuela
Artículo 121: "Los pueblos
indígenas tienen derecho a mantener y desarrollar su identidad étnica y
cultural, cosmovisión, valores, espiritualidad y sus lugares sagrados y de culto.
El Estado fomentará la valoración y difusión de las manifestaciones culturales
de los pueblos indígenas, los cuales tienen derecho a una educación propia y a
un régimen educativo de carácter intercultural y bilingüe, atendiendo a sus
particularidades socioculturales, valores y tradiciones".